Part 4 Literature search
Specific Literature
AR literature
COPS literature
Distributed COPS
Wiki Literature
Internet Research Literature
Specific Literature
The research proposal (Roberts, 2005) assumes the possibility of applying Action Research methodology to the practice of distributed COPs, seeks to learn about the nature of the proposed 'distributed action research' (DAR) and to build a collaborative resource with a view to defining, developing and improving DAR practice. Given that the formulation of DAR was coined by this author it is not surprising that a search for directly related literature drew a blank, but it has been noted that this does not discount the possibility of such literature existing, probably under a different guise, which may be uncovered through the execution of the networking phase two - reaching out to professionals working in closely related fields. Meanwhile an examination of literature pertaining to the component parts - Action Research methodology, distributed COPs and Internet Research is undertaken.
AR literature
Although Altricher, Posch and Somekh (1993) predates widespread internet access, many of the methods suggested for teacher action researchers appear to be applicable. The research diary, dossier, observation profiles, category coding and Nominal Group Technique(NGT) would all appear to be eminently portable to an online environment. Indeed a distributed asynchronous group employing NGT for group decision making would dispense with the need at one stage to have a room full of people working individually in silence (page 165). Winter(2005) lists a long and respected career specialising in Action Research theory but in the past decade since rise of the internet to ubiquity he appears to have concentrated within the fields of educational action research, AR for health professionals, and buddhism. Bob Dick quoted in Roberts(2004) appendix 2 was at that time a member of several online communities but had no experience of doing formal action research in that setting. O'Brien(2001) notes a number of convergences between AR and Information Technology (IT) systems but laments the dearth of published studies combining the two.
"Lau and Hayward (1997), in a recent review of the literature, found that most research on group support systems to date has been in short-term, experimental situations using quantitative methods. There are a few examples, though, of longitudinal studies in naturalistic settings using qualitative methods; of those that did use action research, none studied the use and effects of communication systems in groups and organizations."
O'Brien then offers case study 3 about computer conferencing in a learning community but being a community for learners attending a physical university in Seattle, hardly constitutes a distributed COP. In a conclusion calling for more research however, he concludes the state of the software at that time did not seem sufficient but that
"The characteristics of the new information technologies, especially that of computer conferencing, which allows group communications to take place outside of the bounds of time and space, have the potential to be well suited to action research."
This supports the assumption in the proposal under consideration that such a thing as Distributed Action Research does or can exist.
COPS literature
"Your search - site:http://www.ewenger.com/ +"action research" - did not match any documents. " - google
Lave and Wenger(1990) coming from a theory of learning background, coined the term 'Community of Practice' and Wenger has since developed the theory to include computer mediated COPs.
A search through Etienne Wenger's various websites, (out of those which are made accessible), did not yield any mention of AR but turned up one MA thesis by Sloat, D (2005). Wenger's work seems to have been orientated towards finding ways to quantify the value of COPS to organisations in order to increase recognition.
Sloat however, chooses "qualitative action research techniques using naturalistic methodologies" which include surveys and interviews. The research intended to offer feedback to the participants and management on the value of communities of practice therefore it had "an exploratory phenomenological and a participative orientation." No description of the taking of any action intended to improve was found, other than this feeding back of findings and the hope that "The interviews will also hopefully rejuvenate interest in the community of practice as a viable dissemination centre"
Distributed COPS
Interest in Lave and Wenger's theory has grown since the field of Knowledge Management (KM) grasped that distributed COPS can help to pass on 'soft' knowledge within geographically distributed organisations. Hildreth, Kimble and Wright (2000) concluded that their research demonstrated that CoPs can function in a distributed environment and that the case studies also highlighted an area, the use of shared artefacts, that may be able to contribute to further supporting these communities in their collaboration across time and distance. This concurs with the findings in Roberts (2004-2) a case study where the provision of a wiki was found to increase activity in a COP rather than distract from it, with the wiki being a particularly powerful type of shared artefact.
Wiki Literature
Wales(2005) who describes himself as an internet entrepreneur and wiki pioneer has set up the non-profit 'wikimedia foundation' to secure the open future of the enormously successful wikipedia and other projects. Interestingly, he's an admirer of Ayn Rand's 'objectivism' philosophy which holds that an objective reality does exist, and that knowledge is acquired through the application of reason to sensory data, philosophical positions which accord with my own statement declared earlier, but without any dialectical or historical materialist underpinning, Rand's objectivism then goes on to conclude that morals are determined by the pursuit of happiness and that laissez-fair capitalism is the ultimate rational social system, with which I would strongly disagree. In statement of principles Wales(2005/2) writes
"Wikipedia's success to date is 100% a function of our open community"
"We need to make sure that any changes contribute positively to the community, as ultimately determined by me, in full consultation with the community consensus."
thus occupying a typical role in internet community, that of benevolent dictator. Also of relevance to this project:
"The mailing list will remain open, well-advertised, and will be regarded as the place for meta-discussions about the nature of Wikipedia"
which concurs with findings so far that a wiki may be regarded as a shared artifact belonging to a community which may also need to conduct some of its Community of Practice business of knowledge sharing elsewhere. No reference to Action Research was found amongst activist wikipedia practitioner discussions on that mailing list.
Mayfield(2005) supplies software and expertise in the application of corporate Wikis, usually behind the firewall. A key concept is that internal email is wasteful of time and effort, duplicates work and isolates knowledge whereas a simple wiki demonstrably brings substantial increases in productivity through effective collaboration once people 'get it'.
Online Facilitation
Facilitators of distributed COPS would seem to be a prime audience for the idea of developing community and improving practice through the application of action research methodology. From early days, online education using asynchronous many-to-many channels has taken a lead from Salmon(2005) which is seriously worrying or even tragic, given that she gives out what I would consider to be destructively ill-advised guidance for a heavy-handed facilitation style such as how to perform the black art of imposed summarising, deliberately mentioning participants by name, and this:
"As the conference builds up and you find you have many messages to read on your arrival each day, focus on the last few messages in a thread (rather than reading them chronologically)"
which puts the facilitator into a perceived role as an alien and intrusive 'drive-by poster' from outwith the community.
White(2004) has also informed facilitators with an extensive online community toolkit and demonstrates a self-reflective style, (The Secret of Self-Awareness, http://www.fullcirc.com/community/selfawareness.htm) in tune with an Action Research approach. Current direction includes blogging and an attempt to discover and depict indicators of community. Associate Bill Harris indicates an expertise in Action Research.
Internet Research Literature
Miller and Slater(2000) apply ethnographical ( not to be confused with ethnological see appendix 1 ) methodology to study the way Trinidadians use the internet , examining the interrelated effects of the online and offline worlds of a few households to gain insights into the wider culture. Some quantitative methods are also included ( house to house survey) but the aim is not to make any changes for improvement, this is an entirely passive study. Of interest is a term in the Glossary: Maco - a person given to minding other people's business, e.g. an anthropologist. This reminded me of a series of anthropologist jokes an Innuit once told me ( see appendix 2 )
Jones(1999) suggests the qualitative methods of Pauly(1991) using the three ways of product, process and commentary might be adapted to a study of the internet. By being sensitive to commentary, Jones explains how arrogations about the 'goodness' of community in itself might colour a critique, and offers possible critiques of electronic communities as elitist and exclusive, closed and undemocratic.
"studies of community online will do well not to cast aside the study of some forms that seem less democratic, participative, 'open' and so on"
Internet research literature and ethics
In the section 'beyond netiquette' Jones(1999) argues that the researcher "should clearly introduce himself or herself as to identity, role, purpose and intention" and "make a concerted effort to contact directly the individual who has posted a message that he wishes to quote" but admits that many scholars may argue that this guideline is far beyond the the usual ethical responsibilities expected of researchers. This scholar would count himself amongst them, and further argue that such grand introductions and direct questioning are likely to be disruptive and seen as invasive, thus preferring to start from the ethical approach of Bruckman(2002).
1) You may freely quote and analyze online information without consent if:
* It is officially, publicly archived.
* No password is required for archive access.
* No site policy prohibits it.
* The topic is not highly sensitive.
Mann and Stuart(2000) add more to the ethical debate, quoting Paccagnella's(1997) argument that messages posted on public forums are not equivalent to private letters and a contrary view which expects the researcher to imagine whether the 'intended audience' includes researchers. This seems totally impractical and arrogant to assume that the researcher's guessing of a poster's intentions is any more accurate than the facts that a public forum has been chosen to post it to, although ultimately I feel it must be an ethical responsibility of the researcher to employ sensitivity and common sense rather than look for a set of mechanistic rules to hide behind.
Specific Literature
AR literature
COPS literature
Distributed COPS
Wiki Literature
Internet Research Literature
Specific Literature
The research proposal (Roberts, 2005) assumes the possibility of applying Action Research methodology to the practice of distributed COPs, seeks to learn about the nature of the proposed 'distributed action research' (DAR) and to build a collaborative resource with a view to defining, developing and improving DAR practice. Given that the formulation of DAR was coined by this author it is not surprising that a search for directly related literature drew a blank, but it has been noted that this does not discount the possibility of such literature existing, probably under a different guise, which may be uncovered through the execution of the networking phase two - reaching out to professionals working in closely related fields. Meanwhile an examination of literature pertaining to the component parts - Action Research methodology, distributed COPs and Internet Research is undertaken.
AR literature
Although Altricher, Posch and Somekh (1993) predates widespread internet access, many of the methods suggested for teacher action researchers appear to be applicable. The research diary, dossier, observation profiles, category coding and Nominal Group Technique(NGT) would all appear to be eminently portable to an online environment. Indeed a distributed asynchronous group employing NGT for group decision making would dispense with the need at one stage to have a room full of people working individually in silence (page 165). Winter(2005) lists a long and respected career specialising in Action Research theory but in the past decade since rise of the internet to ubiquity he appears to have concentrated within the fields of educational action research, AR for health professionals, and buddhism. Bob Dick quoted in Roberts(2004) appendix 2 was at that time a member of several online communities but had no experience of doing formal action research in that setting. O'Brien(2001) notes a number of convergences between AR and Information Technology (IT) systems but laments the dearth of published studies combining the two.
"Lau and Hayward (1997), in a recent review of the literature, found that most research on group support systems to date has been in short-term, experimental situations using quantitative methods. There are a few examples, though, of longitudinal studies in naturalistic settings using qualitative methods; of those that did use action research, none studied the use and effects of communication systems in groups and organizations."
O'Brien then offers case study 3 about computer conferencing in a learning community but being a community for learners attending a physical university in Seattle, hardly constitutes a distributed COP. In a conclusion calling for more research however, he concludes the state of the software at that time did not seem sufficient but that
"The characteristics of the new information technologies, especially that of computer conferencing, which allows group communications to take place outside of the bounds of time and space, have the potential to be well suited to action research."
This supports the assumption in the proposal under consideration that such a thing as Distributed Action Research does or can exist.
COPS literature
"Your search - site:http://www.ewenger.com/ +"action research" - did not match any documents. " - google
Lave and Wenger(1990) coming from a theory of learning background, coined the term 'Community of Practice' and Wenger has since developed the theory to include computer mediated COPs.
A search through Etienne Wenger's various websites, (out of those which are made accessible), did not yield any mention of AR but turned up one MA thesis by Sloat, D (2005). Wenger's work seems to have been orientated towards finding ways to quantify the value of COPS to organisations in order to increase recognition.
Sloat however, chooses "qualitative action research techniques using naturalistic methodologies" which include surveys and interviews. The research intended to offer feedback to the participants and management on the value of communities of practice therefore it had "an exploratory phenomenological and a participative orientation." No description of the taking of any action intended to improve was found, other than this feeding back of findings and the hope that "The interviews will also hopefully rejuvenate interest in the community of practice as a viable dissemination centre"
Distributed COPS
Interest in Lave and Wenger's theory has grown since the field of Knowledge Management (KM) grasped that distributed COPS can help to pass on 'soft' knowledge within geographically distributed organisations. Hildreth, Kimble and Wright (2000) concluded that their research demonstrated that CoPs can function in a distributed environment and that the case studies also highlighted an area, the use of shared artefacts, that may be able to contribute to further supporting these communities in their collaboration across time and distance. This concurs with the findings in Roberts (2004-2) a case study where the provision of a wiki was found to increase activity in a COP rather than distract from it, with the wiki being a particularly powerful type of shared artefact.
Wiki Literature
Wales(2005) who describes himself as an internet entrepreneur and wiki pioneer has set up the non-profit 'wikimedia foundation' to secure the open future of the enormously successful wikipedia and other projects. Interestingly, he's an admirer of Ayn Rand's 'objectivism' philosophy which holds that an objective reality does exist, and that knowledge is acquired through the application of reason to sensory data, philosophical positions which accord with my own statement declared earlier, but without any dialectical or historical materialist underpinning, Rand's objectivism then goes on to conclude that morals are determined by the pursuit of happiness and that laissez-fair capitalism is the ultimate rational social system, with which I would strongly disagree. In statement of principles Wales(2005/2) writes
"Wikipedia's success to date is 100% a function of our open community"
"We need to make sure that any changes contribute positively to the community, as ultimately determined by me, in full consultation with the community consensus."
thus occupying a typical role in internet community, that of benevolent dictator. Also of relevance to this project:
"The mailing list will remain open, well-advertised, and will be regarded as the place for meta-discussions about the nature of Wikipedia"
which concurs with findings so far that a wiki may be regarded as a shared artifact belonging to a community which may also need to conduct some of its Community of Practice business of knowledge sharing elsewhere. No reference to Action Research was found amongst activist wikipedia practitioner discussions on that mailing list.
Mayfield(2005) supplies software and expertise in the application of corporate Wikis, usually behind the firewall. A key concept is that internal email is wasteful of time and effort, duplicates work and isolates knowledge whereas a simple wiki demonstrably brings substantial increases in productivity through effective collaboration once people 'get it'.
Online Facilitation
Facilitators of distributed COPS would seem to be a prime audience for the idea of developing community and improving practice through the application of action research methodology. From early days, online education using asynchronous many-to-many channels has taken a lead from Salmon(2005) which is seriously worrying or even tragic, given that she gives out what I would consider to be destructively ill-advised guidance for a heavy-handed facilitation style such as how to perform the black art of imposed summarising, deliberately mentioning participants by name, and this:
"As the conference builds up and you find you have many messages to read on your arrival each day, focus on the last few messages in a thread (rather than reading them chronologically)"
which puts the facilitator into a perceived role as an alien and intrusive 'drive-by poster' from outwith the community.
White(2004) has also informed facilitators with an extensive online community toolkit and demonstrates a self-reflective style, (The Secret of Self-Awareness, http://www.fullcirc.com/community/selfawareness.htm) in tune with an Action Research approach. Current direction includes blogging and an attempt to discover and depict indicators of community. Associate Bill Harris indicates an expertise in Action Research.
Internet Research Literature
Miller and Slater(2000) apply ethnographical ( not to be confused with ethnological see appendix 1 ) methodology to study the way Trinidadians use the internet , examining the interrelated effects of the online and offline worlds of a few households to gain insights into the wider culture. Some quantitative methods are also included ( house to house survey) but the aim is not to make any changes for improvement, this is an entirely passive study. Of interest is a term in the Glossary: Maco - a person given to minding other people's business, e.g. an anthropologist. This reminded me of a series of anthropologist jokes an Innuit once told me ( see appendix 2 )
Jones(1999) suggests the qualitative methods of Pauly(1991) using the three ways of product, process and commentary might be adapted to a study of the internet. By being sensitive to commentary, Jones explains how arrogations about the 'goodness' of community in itself might colour a critique, and offers possible critiques of electronic communities as elitist and exclusive, closed and undemocratic.
"studies of community online will do well not to cast aside the study of some forms that seem less democratic, participative, 'open' and so on"
Internet research literature and ethics
In the section 'beyond netiquette' Jones(1999) argues that the researcher "should clearly introduce himself or herself as to identity, role, purpose and intention" and "make a concerted effort to contact directly the individual who has posted a message that he wishes to quote" but admits that many scholars may argue that this guideline is far beyond the the usual ethical responsibilities expected of researchers. This scholar would count himself amongst them, and further argue that such grand introductions and direct questioning are likely to be disruptive and seen as invasive, thus preferring to start from the ethical approach of Bruckman(2002).
1) You may freely quote and analyze online information without consent if:
* It is officially, publicly archived.
* No password is required for archive access.
* No site policy prohibits it.
* The topic is not highly sensitive.
Mann and Stuart(2000) add more to the ethical debate, quoting Paccagnella's(1997) argument that messages posted on public forums are not equivalent to private letters and a contrary view which expects the researcher to imagine whether the 'intended audience' includes researchers. This seems totally impractical and arrogant to assume that the researcher's guessing of a poster's intentions is any more accurate than the facts that a public forum has been chosen to post it to, although ultimately I feel it must be an ethical responsibility of the researcher to employ sensitivity and common sense rather than look for a set of mechanistic rules to hide behind.